Nature-Based Solutions, Agricultural Productivity and Household Livelihoods among Smallholder Farmers in Machakos County, Kenya
Kayamberi Pauline Agesa *
Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya.
Ezekiel Ndunda
Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya.
Jesse Owino
Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI), Nairobi, Kenya.
*Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Abstract
Nature-based solutions (NbS) offer an approach to sustainable agricultural development by restoring ecological functions while supporting production and household welfare. This study evaluated the relationship of NbS adoption with agricultural productivity and household livelihoods among smallholder farmers in Machakos County, Kenya. The analysis was based on data from 202 smallholder farmers and focused exclusively on the study's fourth objective. A mixed-methods research design was used, with structured household questionnaires forming the principal source of quantitative evidence and qualitative observations and interviews providing contextual interpretation. Agricultural productivity was assessed using crop yield, soil fertility improvement and farm-output consistency, while livelihood outcomes were assessed using household income, food security and income diversification. Descriptive statistics were used to characterise outcome patterns, while an independent-samples t-test compared adopters and non-adopters and regression analysis examined the relationship between NbS adoption and the combined productivity and livelihood outcomes. Among farmers classified by adoption intensity, 18.8% had low adoption, 50.5% moderate adoption and 30.7% high adoption. Among the productivity indicators, soil-fertility improvement recorded the highest proportion of positive responses (46.5%), followed by crop yield (41.6%) and farm-output consistency (39.1%). Livelihood outcomes were also generally positive, with food security showing the highest proportion of improved outcomes (47.5%), followed by household income (44.1%) and income diversification (41.6%). Adopters had significantly higher productivity scores than non-adopters (4.12 versus 2.89; t = 6.74, p < 0.001) and significantly higher livelihood scores (4.05 versus 2.76; t = 5.98, p < 0.001). Regression analysis further indicated a positive association between NbS adoption and the combined agricultural productivity and livelihood outcomes (β = 0.68, SE = 0.09, t = 7.56, p < 0.001). The findings suggest that NbS adoption is associated with improved agricultural performance and household welfare among smallholder farmers in Machakos County. However, because the study was cross-sectional, the observed relationships should not be interpreted as definitive causal effects. Strengthening integrated NbS support, extension services and outcome-based monitoring is recommended to enhance the productivity and livelihood benefits of sustainable land management.
Keywords: Nature-based solutions, agricultural productivity, household livelihoods, soil restoration, smallholder farmers